Unit 1: Critical Thinking
Reading: Know Thyself
There was a lot of shuffling around when the bell rang and everybody got up to leave. I checked my schedule and it said my next class was English, room 321. I didn't stop to see if anyone else from my homeroom was going my way: I just zoomed out of the class and down the hall and sat down as far from the front as possible. The teacher, a really tall man with a yellow beard, was writing on the chalkboard.
Kids came in laughing and talking in little groups but I didn't look up. Basically, the same thing that happened in homeroom happened again: no one sat next to me except for Jack, who was joking around with some kids who weren't in our homeroom. I could tell Jack was the kind of kid other kids like. He had a lot of friends. He made people laugh.
When the second bell rang, everyone got quiet and the teacher turned around and faced us. He said his name was Mr. Browne, and then he started talking about what we would be doing this semester. At a certain point, somewhere between A Wrinkle in Time and Shen of the Sea, he noticed me but kept right on talking.
I was mostly doodling in my notebook while he talked, but every once in a while I would sneak a look at the other students. Charlotte was in this class. So were Julian and Henry. Miles wasn't.
"Okay, everybody write this down at the very top of the very first page in your English notebook."
As we did what he told us to do, he said: "Okay, so who can tell me what a precept is? Does anyone know?"
No one raised their hands.
"Like a motto?" someone called out.
"Like a motto!" said Mr. Browne, nodding as he continued writing on the board. "Like a famous quote. Like a line from a fortune cookie. Any saying or ground rule that can motivate you. Basically, a precept is anything that helps guide us when making decisions about really important things."
He wrote all that on the chalkboard and then turned around and faced us. "So, what are some really important things?" he asked us.
"Sharks, because they eat dead things in the ocean!" said one of the boys, Reid, and Mr. Browne wrote down SHARKS.
"Bees!" "Seatbelts!" "Recycling!" "Friends!"
"Okay," said Mr. Browne, writing all those things down. He turned around and faced us again. "But no one's named the most important thing of all."
We all looked at him, out of ideas.
"Who we are," he said, underlining each word. "What kind of people are we? What kind of person are you? Isn't that the most important thing of all?"
He asked, "Did anyone notice the plaque next to the door of this school? It says: 'Know Thyself'."
"And learning who you are is what you're here to do."
"I thought we were here to learn English," Jack cracked, which made everyone laugh.
"Oh yeah, and that, too!" Mr. Browne answered.
"Okay, everybody," he said, "I want you to start a new section in your notebooks called Mr. Browne's Precepts."
He kept talking as we wrote.
"Put today's date. At the beginning of every month, I will write a new precept. You will write it down and discuss it. At the end of the month, you will write an essay about it. By the end of the year, you will have your own list of precepts."
"Over the summer, I ask students to write their own personal precept on a postcard and mail it to me."
"People really do that?" said one girl.
"Oh yeah," he answered. "It's pretty amazing."
He smiled and continued, "Next summer seems far away, so relax while I take attendance."
आफूलाई चिन्नु (Know Thyself)
घण्टी बज्ने बित्तिकै सबैजना उठेर बाहिरिन थाले र कक्षामा निकै हलचल भयो। मैले आफ्नो समयतालिका हेरेँ। त्यसमा मेरो अर्को कक्षा अङ्ग्रेजी विषयको, कोठा नम्बर ३२१ मा रहेको उल्लेख थियो। मेरो होमरुमका अरू विद्यार्थी पनि त्यतै जाँदैछन् कि भनेर मैले हेर्न पनि रोकिइनँ। म तुरुन्तै कक्षाबाट निस्किएँ, गल्ली हुँदै गएँ र अगाडिको भागबाट सकेसम्म टाढा बसेँ। शिक्षक निकै अग्ला थिए र उनको पहेँलो दाह्री थियो। उनी कालोपाटीमा केही लेखिरहेका थिए।
बच्चाहरू साना–साना समूहमा हाँस्दै र कुरा गर्दै कक्षामा प्रवेश गरिरहेका थिए, तर मैले टाउको उठाएर हेरेँन। होमरुममा जस्तै यहाँ पनि उही कुरा दोहोरियो। ज्याक बाहेक कोही पनि मेरो छेउमा बसेन। ज्याक केही विद्यार्थीहरूसँग ठट्टा गरिरहेको थियो जो हाम्रो होमरुममा थिएनन्। मैले बुझ्न सक्थेँ कि ज्याक त्यस्तो केटा थियो जसलाई सबैले मन पराउँथे। उसका धेरै साथीहरू थिए। उसले सबैलाई हँसाउँथ्यो।
दोस्रो घण्टी बज्दा सबै शान्त भए र शिक्षक हामीतर्फ फर्किए। उनले आफ्नो नाम मिस्टर ब्राउन भएको बताए र त्यसपछि यो सत्रमा हामीले के–के गर्नेछौँ भन्नेबारे कुरा गर्न थाले। A Wrinkle in Time र Shen of the Sea को चर्चा गरिरहेका बेला कतै उनले मलाई पनि देखे, तर आफ्नो कुरा भने निरन्तर जारी राखे।
उनी बोलिरहँदा म प्रायः आफ्नो कापीमा चित्र कोरिरहेको थिएँ। बेला–बेलामा भने मैले अरू विद्यार्थीहरूलाई चोर नजरले हेर्थेँ। चार्लोट पनि यही कक्षामा थिई। जुलियन र हेन्री पनि थिए। माइल्स भने थिएन।
मिस्टर ब्राउनले कालोपाटीमा ठूला अक्षरमा लेखेका थिए:
P-R-E-C-E-P-T !
“ठिक छ, सबैले यो आफ्नो अङ्ग्रेजी कापीको पहिलो पानाको सबैभन्दा माथि लेख।”
हामीले लेख्न थालेपछि उनले भने, “अब कसैले भन्न सक्छ, ‘Precept’ भनेको के हो? कसैलाई थाहा छ?”
कसैले पनि हात उठाएन।
मिस्टर ब्राउन मुस्कुराए, टाउको हल्लाए र फेरि कालोपाटीमा लेख्न थाले:
PRECEPTS = अत्यन्त महत्त्वपूर्ण कुराहरूका नियमहरू
“मोटो (Motto) जस्तै?” कसैले सोध्यो।
“हो, मोटो जस्तै!” मिस्टर ब्राउनले भने। “प्रसिद्ध भनाइ जस्तै, भाग्यफलको कागजमा लेखिएको वाक्य जस्तै, प्रेरणा दिने कुनै उक्ति वा नियम जस्तै। सरल शब्दमा भन्नुपर्दा, जीवनका महत्त्वपूर्ण निर्णयहरू गर्दा मार्गदर्शन गर्ने कुनै पनि कुरा ‘Precept’ हो।”
त्यसपछि उनले सोधे, “अब भन त, जीवनका महत्त्वपूर्ण कुराहरू के–के हुन्?”
केही विद्यार्थीहरूले हात उठाए र आफ्ना उत्तर दिए। मिस्टर ब्राउनले ती सबै कालोपाटीमा लेखे:
- नियमहरू (Rules)
- विद्यालयको काम (Schoolwork)
- गृहकार्य (Homework)
“अरू के?” उनले सोधे।
विद्यार्थीहरूले बोल्न थाले:
- परिवार (Family)
- आमाबुबा (Parents)
- घरपालुवा जनावर (Pets)
एउटी केटीले भनिन्, “वातावरण!”
त्यसपछि उनले लेखे:
- वातावरण (The Environment)
- हाम्रो संसार (Our World)
“सार्कहरू (Sharks), किनकि तिनीहरूले समुद्रका मरेका चीजहरू खान्छन्!” रिड नामको केटाले भन्यो।
त्यसैले उनले थपे:
- सार्कहरू (Sharks)
अरू विद्यार्थीहरूले भने:
- मौरीहरू (Bees)
- सिटबेल्ट (Seatbelts)
- पुनः प्रयोग (Recycling)
- साथीहरू (Friends)
सबै कुरा लेखिसकेपछि मिस्टर ब्राउन फर्किए र भने,
“तर तिमीहरूमध्ये कसैले पनि सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण कुरा भनेका छैनौ।”
हामी सबै उनलाई हेर्न थाल्यौँ। कसैसँग उत्तर थिएन।
“भगवान?” एक जना विद्यार्थीले भन्यो।
मिस्टर ब्राउनले “भगवान” पनि लेखे, तर त्यो उनले खोजेको उत्तर थिएन। त्यसपछि उनले अर्को कुरा लेखे:
हामी को हौँ ? (WHO WE ARE!)
“हामी को हौँ,” उनले प्रत्येक शब्दलाई रेखाङ्कन गर्दै भने। “हामी कस्ता मानिस हौँ? तिमी कस्तो व्यक्ति हौ? के त्यो सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण कुरा होइन? के हामीले सधैँ आफैलाई सोधिरहनुपर्ने प्रश्न यही होइन?
‘म कस्तो व्यक्ति हुँ?’
“विद्यालयको ढोकाको छेउमा रहेको धातुको पट्टिका (Plaque) कसैले देखेको छ? त्यसमा के लेखिएको छ भनेर पढेको छ?”
कसैलाई पनि थाहा थिएन।
मिस्टर ब्राउन मुस्कुराउँदै भने,
“त्यसमा लेखिएको छ— ‘Know Thyself’ अर्थात् ‘आफूलाई चिन्नु।’ र तिमीहरू यहाँ आफू को हौ भन्ने कुरा सिक्नका लागि आएका हौ।”
त्यसै बेला ज्याकले ठट्टा गर्दै भन्यो,
“म त यहाँ अङ्ग्रेजी सिक्न आएको हुँ भन्ने सोचेको थिएँ।”
सबै हाँसे।
“हो, त्यो पनि हो!” मिस्टर ब्राउनले जवाफ दिए।
मलाई उनको जवाफ निकै राम्रो लाग्यो।
त्यसपछि उनले कालोपाटीभरि ठूला अक्षरमा लेखे:
मिस्टर ब्राउनको सेप्टेम्बरको सूत्र (Precept)
“सही हुनुभन्दा दयालु हुने अवसर मिलेमा, दयालु बन्न रोज।”
त्यसपछि उनले भने,
“अब सबैले आफ्नो कापीमा नयाँ खण्ड बनाऊ र त्यसको शीर्षक ‘Mr. Browne’s Precepts’ राख।”
उनी बोलिरहे:
“आजको मिति लेख। अबदेखि प्रत्येक महिनाको सुरुमा म एउटा नयाँ Precept लेख्नेछु। तिमीहरूले त्यो कापीमा टिप्नेछौ। त्यसपछि हामी त्यसबारे छलफल गर्नेछौँ। महिनाको अन्त्यमा तिमीहरूले त्यसको अर्थबारे निबन्ध लेख्नेछौ। यसरी वर्षको अन्त्यसम्ममा तिमीहरूसँग आफ्नै Precepts को सूची हुनेछ।”
उनले थपे,
“गर्मी बिदामा म आफ्ना विद्यार्थीहरूलाई आफ्नै व्यक्तिगत Precept बनाउन लगाउँछु। त्यसलाई पोस्टकार्डमा लेखेर जहाँ गए पनि मलाई पठाउन भन्छु।”
एउटी केटीले अचम्म मान्दै सोधी,
“साँच्चै मानिसहरूले त्यसो गर्छन्?”
“अवश्य गर्छन्,” उनले भने। “कतिपय विद्यार्थीहरूले त विद्यालयबाट उत्तीर्ण भइसकेपछि पनि मलाई नयाँ Precept पठाएका छन्। त्यो साँच्चै अद्भुत कुरा हो।”
उनले आफ्नो दाह्री सुम्सुम्याए र हाँस्दै भने,
“जे होस्, अर्को गर्मी बिदा आउन अझ धेरै समय बाँकी छ। त्यसैले अहिले आराम गर। म हाजिरी लिन्छु...”
Working with Words
A. Find the words from the text
a. Walking by dragging one's feet → Shuffling
b. Drawing pictures or patterns while thinking → Doodling
c. A piece of flat metal with writing on it → Plaque
d. A general rule intended to regulate behaviour or thought → Precept
e. Move or go in a furtive or stealthy way → Sneak / Zoom (used as “zoomed out” quickly in the text)
B. Thinking Skills (Definitions)
a. Convergent thinking:
Thinking that focuses on finding one correct answer or solution.
b. Divergent thinking:
Thinking that generates many possible ideas or solutions.
c. Critical thinking:
Careful analysis and evaluation of information to make a logical judgment.
d. Creative thinking:
Using imagination to create new, original, and useful ideas.
Comprehension
a. Who was Jack? How did he make children laugh?
Jack was a student. He made children laugh by joking and talking humorously with other students.
b. Why are "Sharks" important to Reid?
Reid thought sharks are important because they eat dead things in the ocean and keep it clean.
c. What does Mr. Browne think about the most important thing?
He thinks “Who we are” (our identity and character) is the most important thing.
d. What has not been noticed by the students?
The plaque that says “Know Thyself.”
e. How did Jack make fun of the English class?
He joked that he thought they were there only to learn English, not about life and personal values.
f. What were the students going to do at the end of the month?
They were going to write an essay about the monthly precept and its meaning.
g. What surprised a girl student?
She was surprised that students really sent their personal precepts to the teacher even after graduation.
Critical Thinking
a. My precept:
“Always be honest and kind, even when it is difficult.”
b. Justification:
Critical objectivity is an essential life skill because it helps people think clearly without bias. It allows individuals to separate facts from emotions, make fair decisions, and solve problems effectively. In modern life, where information is vast and sometimes misleading, critical thinking helps people choose the right path and avoid wrong judgments.
Writing
Email to a Friend
Subject: An Interesting Class I Had
Dear Friend,
I hope you are well. Today I had a very interesting English class. Our teacher introduced the idea of “precepts,” which are rules or sayings that guide our life decisions. He encouraged us to think about who we are and what kind of person we should become.
The most inspiring part of the class was his precept: “When given the choice between being right or being kind, choose kind.” It really made me think deeply about my behavior.
It was an enjoyable and meaningful class.
Your friend,
[Your Name]
Grammar: Question Tags
B. Question tags
a. Gill does not know Ann, does she?
b. I'm very patient, aren’t I?
c. They'd never met me before, had they?
d. Listen carefully, will you?
e. Let's have a break, shall we?
f. Let us invite them, will you?
g. Hari used to live in France, didn’t he?
h. You’d better not take a hard drink, had you?
i. Sheep eat grass, don’t they?
j. Mr. Pande can speak nine languages, can’t he?
k. She’s finished her classes, hasn’t she?
l. She barely managed to reach the goal, did she?
m. Don’t let him swim in that pond, will you?
n. There are lots of people here, aren’t there?
C. Situational Question Tags
a. It’s going to rain soon, isn’t it?
b. Shyam, you can help me, can’t you?
c. Nice to meet you, isn’t it?
d. The film was great, wasn’t it?
e. He gave an excellent performance, didn’t he?
f. Your father has arrived, hasn’t he?
g. Susan will join the job tomorrow, won’t she?
h. You have got a haircut, haven’t you?
i. Let’s go for a picnic, shall we?
j. Let me go for a walk, will you?
UNIT 2
READING
FAMILY
At its most basic, a family consists of an adult and his or her offspring. Most commonly, it consists of two married adults, usually a man and a woman (almost always from different lineages and not related by blood) along with their offspring, usually living in a private and separate dwelling. This type of unit, more specifically known as a nuclear family, is believed to be the oldest of the various types of families in existence. Sometimes the family includes not only the parents and their unmarried children living at home but also children that have married, their spouses, and their offspring, and possibly elderly dependents as well; such an arrangement is called an extended family.
At its best, the family performs various valuable functions for its members. Perhaps most important of all, it provides for emotional and psychological security, particularly through the warmth, love, and companionship that living together generates between spouses and in turn between them and their children. The family also provides a valuable social and political function by institutionalizing procreation and by providing guidelines for the regulation of sexual conduct. The family additionally provides such other socially beneficial functions as the rearing and socialization of children, along with such humanitarian activities as caring for its members when they are sick or disabled. On the economic side, the family provides food, shelter, clothing, and physical security for its members, some of whom may be too young or too old to provide for the basic necessities of life themselves. Finally, on the social side, family may serve to promote order and stability within society as a whole.
Historically, in most cultures, the family was patriarchal, or male-dominated. Perhaps the most striking example of the male-dominated family is the description of the family given in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament), where the male heads of the clans were allowed to have several wives as well as concubines. As a general rule, women had a rather low status. In Roman times the family was still patriarchal, but polygamy was not practiced, and in general the status of women was somewhat improved over that suggested in the Hebrew Bible, although they still were not allowed to manage their own affairs. The Roman family was an extended one. The family as it existed in medieval Europe was male-dominated and extended.
In the West, industrialization and the accompanying urbanization spawned—and continue to spawn—many changes in family structure by causing a sharp change in life and occupational styles. Many people, particularly unmarried youths, left farms and went to urban centres to become industrial workers. This process led to the dissolution of many extended families.
The modern family that emerged after the Industrial Revolution is different from the earlier model. For instance, patriarchal rule began to give way to greater equality between the sexes. Similarly, family roles once considered exclusively male or female broke down. Caring for the home and children, once the exclusive duty of the female, is often a shared activity, as, increasingly, is the earning of wages and the pursuit of public life, once the exclusive domain of the male. The structure of the family is also changing in that some couples choose not to marry legally and instead elect to have their children out of wedlock; many of these informal relationships tend to be of short duration, and this as well as the rise in levels of divorce has led to a rapid increase in the number of one-parent households.
Family law varies from culture to culture, but in its broadest application it defines the legal relationships among family members as well as the relationships between families and society at large. Some of the important questions dealt with in family law include the terms and parameters of marriage, the status of children, and the succession of property from one generation to the next. In nearly every case, family law represents a delicate balance between the interests of society and the protection of individual rights.
The general rule in marriages until modern times was the legal transfer of dependency, that of the bride, from father to groom. Not only did the groom assume guardianship, he usually assumed control over all of his wife's affairs. Often, the woman lost any legal identity through marriage, as was the case in English common law. There have been exceptions to this practice. Muslim women, for instance, had considerable control over their own personal property. The use of dowries, an amount of money or property given to the husband with the bride in compensation for her dependency, has long been practiced in many countries, but it has tended to disappear in many industrial societies.
In general, modern marriage is best-described as a voluntary union, usually between a man and a woman (although there are still vestiges of the arranged marriage that once flourished in eastern Europe and Asia). The emancipation of women in the 19th and 20th centuries changed marriage dramatically, particularly in connection with property and economic status. By the mid-20th century, most Western countries had enacted legislation establishing equality between spouses. Similarly changed is the concept of economic maintenance, which traditionally fell on the shoulders of the husband. Though many laws still lean toward this view, there was increasing recognition of a woman's potential to contribute to the support of the family. At the beginning of the 21st century, family law and the notion of family itself was further complicated by calls for acceptance of same-sex marriages and nontraditional families.
Dissolution of marriages is one of the areas in which laws must try to balance private and public interest, since realistically it is the couple itself that can best decide whether its marriage is viable. In many older systems—e.g., Roman, Muslim, Jewish, Chinese, and Japanese—some form of unilateral divorce was possible, requiring only one party to give notice of the intention, usually the male. Most modern systems recognize a mutual request for divorce, though many require an attempt to reconcile before granting divorce. Extreme circumstances, in which blatant neglect, abuse, misbehaviour, or incapacity can be demonstrated, find resolution in civil court. Many systems favour special family courts that attempt to deal more fairly with sensitive issues such as custody of children.
The issue of children poses special problems for family law. In nearly every culture, the welfare of children was formerly left to the parents entirely, and this usually meant the father. Most societies have come to recognize the general benefit of protecting children's rights and of prescribing certain standards of rearing. Thus, more than in any other area, family law intervenes in private lives with regard to children. Compulsory education is an example of the law superseding parental authority. In the case of single-parent homes, the law will frequently provide some form of support. Legislation on child labour and child abuse also asserts society's responsibility for a child's best interests.
The succession of family interests upon the death of its members can be considered a part of family law. Most legal systems have some means of dealing with division of property left by a deceased family member. The will, or testament, specifies the decedent's wishes as to such distribution, but a surviving spouse or offspring may contest what appear to be unreasonable or inequitable provisions. There are also laws that recognize family claims in the event that property is left intestate (i.e., with no will to determine its distribution).
Alan John Barnard
परिवार
सबैभन्दा आधारभूत रूपमा, परिवार भनेको एक वयस्क व्यक्ति र उसका सन्तानहरू मिलेर बनेको समूह हो। सामान्यतया परिवारमा दुई विवाहित वयस्कहरू—एक पुरुष र एक महिला—र तिनका सन्तानहरू हुन्छन्, जो प्रायः छुट्टै घरमा बस्छन्। यस प्रकारको परिवारलाई एकल (न्यूक्लियर) परिवार भनिन्छ र यसलाई परिवारको सबैभन्दा पुरानो स्वरूप मानिन्छ।
कहिलेकाहीँ परिवारमा आमाबुबा र अविवाहित सन्तान मात्र नभई विवाहित सन्तान, तिनका पति वा पत्नी, नातिनातिना तथा आश्रित वृद्ध सदस्यहरू पनि समावेश हुन्छन्। यस्तो परिवारलाई संयुक्त (विस्तारित) परिवार भनिन्छ।
परिवारले आफ्ना सदस्यहरूका लागि विभिन्न महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्यहरू गर्दछ। सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य भनेको भावनात्मक तथा मनोवैज्ञानिक सुरक्षा प्रदान गर्नु हो। परिवारमा सँगै बस्दा पति–पत्नी तथा आमाबुबा र सन्तानबीच प्रेम, आत्मीयता र साथको भावना विकास हुन्छ।
परिवारले सन्तान जन्माउने कार्यलाई संस्थागत बनाउने तथा यौन व्यवहारलाई व्यवस्थित गर्ने सामाजिक र राजनीतिक भूमिका पनि निर्वाह गर्दछ। साथै, बालबालिकाको पालनपोषण, समाजीकरण तथा बिरामी वा अशक्त सदस्यहरूको हेरचाह जस्ता मानवीय कार्यहरू पनि परिवारले गर्दछ।
आर्थिक दृष्टिले परिवारले आफ्ना सदस्यहरूलाई खाना, आवास, कपडा तथा शारीरिक सुरक्षा प्रदान गर्दछ। विशेष गरी बालबालिका र वृद्धहरूलाई जीवनका आधारभूत आवश्यकताहरू उपलब्ध गराउँछ। सामाजिक दृष्टिले परिवारले समाजमा शान्ति, व्यवस्था र स्थिरता कायम राख्न मद्दत गर्दछ।
इतिहासमा अधिकांश संस्कृतिहरूमा परिवार पितृसत्तात्मक (पुरुषप्रधान) थियो। यसको एउटा उदाहरण हिब्रु बाइबल (पुरानो नियम) मा पाइन्छ, जहाँ कुलका पुरुष प्रमुखहरूलाई धेरै पत्नी तथा उपपत्नी राख्न अनुमति थियो। सामान्यतया महिलाको सामाजिक हैसियत निकै कमजोर थियो।
रोमन कालमा पनि परिवार पितृसत्तात्मक नै थियो, तर बहुविवाहको अभ्यास थिएन। महिलाको स्थिति केही सुधारिएको भए पनि उनीहरूलाई आफ्ना व्यक्तिगत कार्यहरू स्वतन्त्र रूपमा सञ्चालन गर्ने अधिकार थिएन। रोमन परिवार संयुक्त परिवार थियो। मध्यकालीन युरोपमा पनि परिवार पुरुषप्रधान तथा संयुक्त स्वरूपको थियो।
पश्चिमी देशहरूमा औद्योगिकीकरण र सहरीकरणले परिवारको संरचनामा ठूलो परिवर्तन ल्यायो। धेरै युवाहरू गाउँ छोडेर शहरमा उद्योगहरूमा काम गर्न गए। यस प्रक्रियाले धेरै संयुक्त परिवारहरू विघटन हुन पुगे।
औद्योगिक क्रान्तिपछि विकसित भएको आधुनिक परिवार पहिलेको परिवारभन्दा फरक छ। पितृसत्तात्मक शासन क्रमशः महिला–पुरुष समानतातर्फ उन्मुख हुन थाल्यो। पहिले पुरुष वा महिलाका लागि मात्र मानिने पारिवारिक भूमिकाहरू साझा हुन थाले।
घरको काम र बालबालिकाको हेरचाह, जुन पहिले महिलाको मात्र जिम्मेवारी मानिन्थ्यो, अहिले प्रायः साझा जिम्मेवारी बनेको छ। त्यसैगरी आयआर्जन र सार्वजनिक जीवनमा सहभागिता, जुन पहिले पुरुषको मात्र क्षेत्र मानिन्थ्यो, अहिले दुवैले साझा रूपमा निर्वाह गर्न थालेका छन्।
परिवारको संरचनामा पनि परिवर्तन आएको छ। केही जोडीहरूले कानुनी विवाह नगरी सँगै बस्ने र सन्तान जन्माउने निर्णय गर्छन्। यस्ता सम्बन्धहरू प्रायः छोटो समय टिक्ने भएकाले तथा सम्बन्धविच्छेद (डिभोर्स) को दर बढेकाले एकल अभिभावक भएका परिवारहरूको संख्या बढ्दै गएको छ।
परिवारसम्बन्धी कानुन (पारिवारिक कानुन) संस्कृतिअनुसार फरक–फरक हुन्छ। यसको व्यापक अर्थमा यसले परिवारका सदस्यहरूबीच तथा परिवार र समाजबीचका कानुनी सम्बन्धहरूलाई परिभाषित गर्दछ।
पारिवारिक कानुनले विवाहका सर्तहरू, बालबालिकाको स्थिति तथा एक पुस्ताबाट अर्को पुस्तामा सम्पत्तिको हस्तान्तरणजस्ता विषयहरूलाई समेट्छ। यसले समाजको हित र व्यक्तिगत अधिकारहरूको संरक्षणबीच सन्तुलन कायम गर्ने प्रयास गर्दछ।
आधुनिक समयभन्दा पहिले विवाहपछि दुलहीको अभिभावकीय जिम्मेवारी बाबुबाट दुलाहातर्फ सर्ने कानुनी व्यवस्था थियो। दुलाहाले पत्नीको अभिभावकत्व मात्र होइन, उनका धेरैजसो व्यक्तिगत मामिलाहरूमा नियन्त्रण पनि लिने गर्थ्यो। विवाहपछि महिलाले आफ्नो स्वतन्त्र कानुनी पहिचान समेत गुमाउने अवस्था थियो।
यद्यपि केही अपवादहरू पनि थिए। उदाहरणका लागि मुस्लिम महिलाहरूलाई आफ्नो व्यक्तिगत सम्पत्तिमाथि पर्याप्त अधिकार प्राप्त थियो। दाइजो प्रथाअन्तर्गत दुलहीसँगै पैसा वा सम्पत्ति दिने चलन धेरै देशहरूमा थियो, तर औद्योगिक समाजहरूमा यो क्रमशः घट्दै गएको छ।
सामान्यतया आधुनिक विवाहलाई स्वेच्छिक सम्बन्धका रूपमा लिइन्छ। १९औँ र २०औँ शताब्दीमा महिलाको स्वतन्त्रता र अधिकार विस्तारसँगै विवाह प्रणालीमा ठूलो परिवर्तन आयो। विशेष गरी सम्पत्ति र आर्थिक हैसियतका विषयमा महिला–पुरुषबीच समानताको व्यवस्था हुन थाल्यो।
२०औँ शताब्दीको मध्यसम्म आइपुग्दा धेरै पश्चिमी देशहरूले पति–पत्नीबीच समानता स्थापित गर्ने कानुनहरू लागू गरिसकेका थिए। परिवारको आर्थिक जिम्मेवारीमा महिलाको योगदानलाई पनि मान्यता दिन थालियो।
२१औँ शताब्दीको प्रारम्भमा समलिंगी विवाह तथा परम्परागतभन्दा फरक परिवारहरूको स्वीकार्यताको माग बढेसँगै परिवार र पारिवारिक कानुनको अवधारणा अझ जटिल बन्दै गयो।
विवाह विच्छेद (डिभोर्स) पारिवारिक कानुनको अर्को महत्त्वपूर्ण क्षेत्र हो। पुराना कानुनी प्रणालीहरूमा एक पक्षको निर्णयबाट सम्बन्धविच्छेद सम्भव थियो, विशेष गरी पुरुषको पहलमा। आधुनिक कानुनी प्रणालीहरूले भने आपसी सहमतिमा डिभोर्सलाई मान्यता दिन्छन्, यद्यपि धेरै ठाउँमा मिलापत्रको प्रयास अनिवार्य गरिन्छ।
बालबालिकासम्बन्धी विषयहरू पारिवारिक कानुनका विशेष क्षेत्र हुन्। विगतमा बालबालिकाको हितको जिम्मेवारी पूर्ण रूपमा आमाबुबामा, विशेष गरी बाबुमा, निर्भर थियो। अहिले अधिकांश समाजहरूले बालअधिकारको संरक्षणलाई महत्त्व दिएका छन्।
अनिवार्य शिक्षा, बालश्रम निषेध, बालदुर्व्यवहार नियन्त्रण तथा एकल अभिभावक परिवारका बालबालिकालाई सहयोग प्रदान गर्ने व्यवस्था समाजले बालबालिकाको सर्वोत्तम हित सुनिश्चित गर्न अपनाएका उपायहरू हुन्।
परिवारका सदस्यको मृत्यु भएपछि सम्पत्तिको उत्तराधिकार र बाँडफाँड पनि पारिवारिक कानुनअन्तर्गत पर्दछ। मृत व्यक्तिले वसीयत (Will) मार्फत आफ्नो सम्पत्ति कसरी बाँड्ने भन्ने इच्छा व्यक्त गर्न सक्छ। तर जीवित पति/पत्नी वा सन्तानहरूले अन्यायपूर्ण वा असमान लागेमा त्यसलाई चुनौती दिन सक्छन्।
यदि कसैले वसीयत नगरी मृत्यु भयो भने (अर्थात् अवसीयत/Intestate अवस्थामा), सम्पत्तिको बाँडफाँड सम्बन्धी कानुनी व्यवस्थाहरू लागू हुन्छन्।
लेखक : एलन जोन बार्नार्ड
A. Find the words from the text and solve the puzzle.
ACROSS
POLYGAMY – the custom of having more than one wife at the same time
RECONCILE – to find an acceptable way of dealing with opposing ideas/needs
URBANIZATION – the process in which countryside becomes towns/cities
SOCIALIZATION – the process of learning to behave in an acceptable way in society
DOWN
PATRIARCHAL – ruled or controlled by men
SUCCESSION – the act of taking over a position
BLATANT – done without caring if people are shocked
ONE-PARENT – Single parent
B. Find the meanings of the following family-related words and use them in your own sentences.
1. Nuclear Family
Meaning: A family consisting of parents and their children only.
Sentence: I live in a nuclear family with my parents and younger brother.
2. Monogamy
Meaning: The practice of being married to only one person at a time.
Sentence: Monogamy is the most common form of marriage in many countries.
3. Sibling-in-law
Meaning: The brother or sister of one's spouse, or the spouse of one's sibling.
Sentence: My sibling-in-law helped us organize the family gathering.
4. Milk Kinship
Meaning: A social relationship between people who were breastfed by the same woman.
Sentence: In some cultures, milk kinship creates strong family-like bonds.
5. Matrilineal
Meaning: Relating to a system in which family descent is traced through the mother's side.
Sentence: The tribe follows a matrilineal system of inheritance.
6. Nepotism
Meaning: The practice of giving jobs or advantages to relatives regardless of their qualifications.
Sentence: The manager was accused of nepotism for hiring his cousin.
7. Maternity
Meaning: Motherhood or the period during which a woman is pregnant or has recently given birth.
Sentence: She is on maternity leave after the birth of her baby.
C. Make at least five words using the prefixes given.
Pre- (before)
- Preview
- Prepaid
- Preschool
- Predict
- Prehistoric
Semi- (half/partly)
- Semicircle
- Semifinal
- Semiconscious
- Semiskilled
- Semicolon
Sub- (under/below)
- Submarine
- Subtitle
- Substandard
- Subcontinent
- Subgroup
Mis- (wrongly/badly)
- Misunderstand
- Misbehave
- Misplace
- Mislead
- Misuse
Mono- (one/single)
- Monologue
- Monorail
- Monosyllable
- Monotheism
- Monochrome
Un- (not/opposite of)
- Unhappy
- Unfair
- Unknown
- Unsafe
- Untidy
In- (not/without)
- Inactive
- Incorrect
- Incomplete
- Insecure
- Indirect
Inter- (between/among)
- International
- Interact
- Interconnect
- Interdependent
- Intercollege
Meaning of the Prefixes
Prefix | Meaning |
Pre- | Before |
Semi- | Half, partly |
Sub- | Under, below |
Mis- | Wrongly, badly |
Mono- | One, single |
Un- | Not, opposite of |
In- | Not, without |
Inter- | Between, among |
Comprehension
A. The headings of the first five paragraphs of the above text are given below. Write paragraph number next to them.
a. Patriarchal family — Paragraph 3
b. Functions of the family — Paragraph 2
c. Modern model of family — Paragraph 5
d. Effects of industrialization on family structure — Paragraph 4
e. Defining family — Paragraph 1
B. Answer the following questions.
a. What type of family is thought to be the oldest form of the family?
Answer: The nuclear family is thought to be the oldest form of the family.
b. How does a family provide security to its members?
Answer: A family provides emotional, psychological, social, economic, and physical security through love, care, companionship, food, shelter, clothing, and protection.
c. What were the features of medieval European family?
Answer: The medieval European family was male-dominated and extended in nature.
d. What caused the dissolution of extended families in the West?
Answer: Industrialization and urbanization caused many people to move from rural areas to cities for work, leading to the dissolution of extended families.
e. What change occurred in gender role in the modern family that emerged after the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: Traditional gender roles changed, and responsibilities such as earning income and caring for children and the home became shared by both men and women.
f. What is family law?
Answer: Family law is the branch of law that regulates legal relationships among family members and between families and society.
g. How is modern marriage defined?
Answer: Modern marriage is defined as a voluntary union, usually between a man and a woman, based on mutual consent.
h. What do special family courts try to do?
Answer: Special family courts try to deal fairly and sensitively with family matters such as divorce and child custody.
i. What does the legislation on child labour and child abuse declare?
Answer: It declares society's responsibility to protect children's rights and ensure their welfare.
j. What is common among most legal systems regarding property?
Answer: Most legal systems have provisions for the division and distribution of a deceased person's property.
Critical Thinking
a. What changes have started to occur in Nepali families in recent days? What impacts will they bring on society? Discuss.
Answer:
Nepali families have experienced significant changes in recent years. The traditional extended family system is gradually being replaced by nuclear families due to urbanization, foreign employment, education, and modernization. Women are becoming more educated and economically independent, and family members enjoy greater personal freedom and privacy.
These changes have both positive and negative impacts. On the positive side, nuclear families allow for better financial planning, independence, and personal growth. Women have more opportunities to participate in education and employment. On the negative side, family bonds may weaken, elderly people may receive less care and support, and traditional values of cooperation and mutual responsibility may decline. Therefore, society should balance modernization with traditional family values.
b. We see many elderly people in elderly homes these days in Nepal. Some of them are abandoned while others live there willingly. Do you think Nepali people are deviating from their traditional culture? Give reasons.
Answer:
Traditionally, Nepali culture emphasizes respect for elders and caring for them within the family. The growing number of elderly people living in old-age homes suggests that some aspects of traditional culture are changing. Urbanization, migration, busy lifestyles, and changing family structures have reduced the ability of many families to care for elderly members at home.
However, not all elderly people in old-age homes are neglected. Some choose to live there voluntarily because they receive better healthcare, companionship, and support. Therefore, while some traditional practices are changing, it would be unfair to say that Nepali people have completely abandoned their culture. Society is adapting to modern circumstances while still trying to maintain respect for senior citizens.
Writing
A: Essay on The Importance of Family
The Importance of Family
Family is one of the most important institutions in human life. It is the first place where a person learns love, care, respect, and responsibility. Family plays a vital role in shaping an individual's character and personality.
Family is important to me because it provides emotional support, security, and guidance. Whenever I face difficulties, my family encourages me and helps me overcome challenges. The love and affection of family members give me confidence and happiness. My family also teaches me moral values and helps me become a responsible person.
Family is equally important for society. It is the foundation of social life and helps maintain social order and stability. Families raise children, teach them social norms, and prepare them to become good citizens. Strong families contribute to a peaceful and prosperous society. Without families, it would be difficult to pass cultural values and traditions from one generation to another.
In the future, families may continue to change due to modernization, urbanization, and technological development. Nuclear families may become more common, and family members may live in different places because of education and employment opportunities. However, despite these changes, the importance of family will remain unchanged because people will always need love, care, and emotional support.
In conclusion, family is the backbone of both individual life and society. It provides security, guidance, and happiness, making it one of the most valuable aspects of human life.
Writing B: Essay on Nuclear Family and Extended Family
Nuclear Family and Extended Family
Family is an essential part of human life. Some people prefer living in a nuclear family, while others believe that an extended family offers more advantages. Both types of families have their own benefits and drawbacks.
A nuclear family consists of parents and their children. One of its major advantages is privacy and independence. Family members can make decisions more freely and manage their finances according to their needs. There is usually less conflict because fewer people live together. However, nuclear families may lack emotional and financial support during difficult times. Elderly parents may also receive less attention and care.
On the other hand, an extended family includes grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, and other relatives living together or maintaining close relationships. Extended families provide strong emotional support, cooperation, and security. Children benefit from the guidance and experience of older family members. Elderly people receive better care and companionship. However, extended families may face problems such as lack of privacy, disagreements among members, and difficulties in decision-making.
In my opinion, both family systems have advantages and disadvantages. The best family structure depends on the needs and circumstances of the members. What matters most is not the size of the family but the love, respect, cooperation, and understanding among its members.
In conclusion, both nuclear and extended families play important roles in society. A happy family environment, regardless of its type, contributes to the well-being of individuals and society as a whole.
Grammar
B. Choose the best answer to complete the sentences.
a. 'How much was your parking ticket?' 'Fifty rupees.' 'Oh well, it __________ been worse.'
i. could have
ii. must have
iii. should have
Answer: i. could have
b. It __________ got lost in the post. These things happen sometimes.
i. can't have
ii. might have
iii. must have
Answer: ii. might have
c. 'Sorry I'm late. I got delayed at work.' 'You __________ called. I was really worried about you.'
i. must have
ii. could have
iii. would have
Answer: ii. could have
d. 'I don't think he meant to be rude.' 'He __________ said sorry.'
i. must have
ii. might have
iii. would have
Answer: iii. would have
e. 'Whose signature is this?' 'I don't know. It __________ be Manoj's. That looks a bit like an M.'
i. must
ii. could
iii. should
Answer: ii. could
f. I had it when I left the office so I __________ lost it on the way home.
i. mustn't have
ii. must have
iii. should have
Answer: ii. must have
g. You __________ think it's funny, but I think it's pathetic.
i. might
ii. should
iii. could
Answer: i. might
C. Complete the following sentences with appropriate endings.
a. At the end of the course, I will be able to speak English fluently.
b. If you want to earn a lot of money, you must work hard.
c. You were not in your house yesterday. You might have gone to the market.
d. I'm quite busy tomorrow. I may not be able to meet you.
e. When you were a small kid, you could run very fast.
f. My car is broken. I must get it repaired.
g. I've got a fast-speed internet at home. I can download large files quickly.
h. Even though she didn't study well, she could pass the examination.
i. There are plenty of newspapers in the library. You can read them if you want.
j. What do you think you were doing, playing in the road? You could have been seriously injured.
k. I have no time. I must leave now.
l. You don't look well. You should see a doctor.
Unit 3 SportsReadingEuro 2020
Italy wins Euro 2020, beats England in penalty shoot-out
By Associated Press
LONDON, July 12: Italian soccer’s redemption story is complete. England’s painful half-century wait for a major title goes on.And it just had to be because of a penalty shootout.Italy won the European Championship for the second time by beating England 3-2 on penalties on Sunday. The match finished 1-1 after extra time at Wembley Stadium, which was filled mostly with English fans hoping to celebrate the team’s first international trophy since the 1966 World Cup.“It’s coming to Rome. It’s coming to Rome,” Italy defender Leonardo Bonucci shouted into a TV camera amid the celebrations, mocking the famous lyric “it’s coming home” from the England team’s anthem.For England, it was utter dejection again — they know the feeling so well when it comes to penalties — after Gianluigi Donnarumma, Italy’s imposing goalkeeper, dived to his left and saved the decisive spot kick by 19-year-old Londoner Bukayo Saka, one of the youngest players in England’s squad.
That was England’s third straight failure from the penalty spot in the shootout, with Marcus Rashford and Jadon Sancho — players brought on late in extra time seemingly as specialist penalty-takers — also missing.As Saka and Sancho cried, Donnarumma was mobbed by his teammates as they sprinted toward him from the halfway line at the end of the second penalty shootout in a European Championship final.Then Italy’s jubilant players headed to the other end of the field and ran as one, diving to the ground in front of the Italian fans who have witnessed a rebirth of their national team.It was less than four years ago that Italy plunged to the lowest moment of its soccer history by failing to qualify for the World Cup for the first time in six decades. Now, they are the best team in Europe and on a national-record 34-match unbeaten run under Roberto Mancini, their suave coach who has won an international trophy in his first attempt to add to the country’s other European title — in 1968 — and its four World Cups.Mancini joined his players on the podium as Italy captain Giorgio Chiellini lifted the Henri Delaunay trophy to the backdrop of fireworks and tickertape.
“It was impossible even to just consider this at one stage,” Mancini said, “but the guys were just amazing. I have no words for them.”For England, it’s the latest heartache in shootouts at major tournaments, after defeats in 1990, 1996, 1998, 2004, 2006 and 2012. They ended that losing streak by beating Colombia on penalties in the round of 16 at the 2018 World Cup, but the pain has quickly returned.“The boys couldn’t have given more,” England captain Harry Kane said. “Penalties are the worst feeling in the world when you lose. It’s been a fantastic tournament — we should be proud, hold our heads up high. It’s going to hurt now; it’s going to hurt for a while.”England’s first major final in 55 years had all started so well, too, with Luke Shaw scoring the fastest goal in a European Championship final by meeting a cross from opposite wing back Kieran Trippier with a half-volley that went in off the post in the second minute.It was Shaw’s first goal for England and it prompted a fist-pump between David 18 Beckham and Tom Cruise in the VIP box amid an explosion of joy around Wembley, which had at least 67,000 fans inside. Maybe more, given dozens of ticketless England fans managed to barge their way past stewards and police and into the stadium in unsettling scenes before kickoff.That was the only time Italy’s famously robust defense was really opened up in the entire 120 minutes.Indeed, after Shaw’s goal, England barely saw the ball for the rest of the game.Italy’s midfielders dominated possession, as widely predicted before the match, and England simply resorted to dropping deep and getting nine or even all 10 outfield players behind the ball. It was reminiscent of the 2018 World Cup semifinals, when England also scored early against Croatia then spent most of the game chasing its opponent’s midfield before losing in extra time.Italy’s equalizer was merited and Bonucci was the unlikely scorer. He put the ball in from close range after a right-wing corner was flicked on to Marco Verratti, whose stooping header was tipped onto the post by goalkeeper Jordan Pickford.
England managed to hold on for extra time — the way three of the last six European finals went — and actually had the better of the final stages.Just not the shootout, again.After the misses of Rashford — he stuttered up to the ball and then hit the post — and Sancho, whose shot was saved by Donnarumma again down to his left, Jorginho had the chance to win it for Italy.Incredibly, the midfielder who converted the decisive penalty in a shootout win over Spain in the semifinals also failed to score as Pickford tipped the effort off the post.It was Donnarumma who then made the crucial saves and within minutes he had also been named player of the tournament, the first goalkeeper to be so honored.So instead of coming home, the trophy is headed to Rome.“We’d heard it day in, day out from Wednesday night — we heard it would be coming home to London,” Bonucci said. “I’m sorry for them, but the cup will be taking a nice flight, making its way to Rome so Italians all over the world can savor this.”
इटालीले युरो २०२० जित्यो, पेनाल्टी सुटआउटमा इंग्ल्यान्डलाई हरायो
एसोसिएटेड प्रेस
लन्डन, जुलाई १२: इटालीको फुटबल पुनरुत्थानको कथा पूर्ण भएको छ। अर्कोतर्फ, इंग्ल्यान्डले ठूलो अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय उपाधिको प्रतीक्षामा बिताएको पीडादायी आधा शताब्दी अझै जारी रहेको छ।
र अन्ततः खेलको निर्णय पेनाल्टी सुटआउटबाट नै भयो।
आइतबार इटालीले पेनाल्टीमा इंग्ल्यान्डलाई ३–२ ले पराजित गर्दै दोस्रो पटक युरोपियन च्याम्पियनसिपको उपाधि जित्यो। निर्धारित समय र अतिरिक्त समयपछि वेम्ब्ली रंगशालामा खेल १–१ को बराबरीमा सकिएको थियो। सन् १९६६ को विश्वकपपछि पहिलो अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय उपाधि जित्ने आशामा अधिकांश इंग्लिस समर्थकहरूले रंगशाला भरिभराउ बनाएका थिए।
उत्सवका बीच इटालीका रक्षक लियोनार्डो बोनुच्चीले टेलिभिजन क्यामेरातर्फ हेर्दै, “यो रोम आउँदैछ, यो रोम आउँदैछ,” भनेर चिच्याए। उनले इंग्ल्यान्ड टोलीको चर्चित गीत “It's Coming Home” को व्यङ्ग्य गर्दै यस्तो भनेका थिए।
इंग्ल्यान्डका लागि भने यो फेरि एकपटक गहिरो निराशाको क्षण बन्यो। पेनाल्टी सुटआउटमा हार्नु कस्तो पीडादायी हुन्छ भन्ने अनुभव उनीहरूलाई राम्ररी थाहा थियो। इटालीका प्रभावशाली गोलरक्षक जियानलुइजी डोनारुम्माले बायाँतर्फ उत्कृष्ट डाइभ गर्दै इंग्ल्यान्ड टोलीका सबैभन्दा कान्छा खेलाडीमध्ये एक, १९ वर्षीय बुकायो साकाले प्रहार गरेको निर्णायक पेनाल्टी बचाए।
पेनाल्टी सुटआउटमा इंग्ल्यान्डका लागि यो लगातार तेस्रो असफलता थियो। अतिरिक्त समयको अन्त्यतिर विशेष रूपमा पेनाल्टी प्रहार गर्न मैदानमा ल्याइएका मार्कस रासफोर्ड र जेडन सान्चो पनि गोल गर्न असफल भए।
साका र सान्चो आँसु झारिरहेका बेला, युरोपियन च्याम्पियनसिपको फाइनलमा दोस्रो पटक भएको पेनाल्टी सुटआउट समाप्त हुनेबित्तिकै इटालीका गोलरक्षक डोनारुम्मातर्फ उनका साथी खेलाडीहरू मध्यरेखाबाट दौडिँदै पुगे र खुसीयाली मनाउँदै उनलाई अँगालो हाले।
त्यसपछि इटालीका उल्लासित खेलाडीहरू मैदानको अर्को छेउमा पुगे र आफ्नो राष्ट्रिय टोलीको पुनर्जागरण देखिरहेका इटालियन समर्थकहरूको अगाडि एकसाथ दौडिँदै जमिनमा हाम फालेर विजय उत्सव मनाए।
चार वर्षभन्दा पनि कम समयअघि, छ दशकयता पहिलो पटक विश्वकपका लागि छनोट हुन नसकेपछि इटाली आफ्नो फुटबल इतिहासकै सबैभन्दा कठिन अवस्थामा पुगेको थियो। तर अहिले प्रशिक्षक रोबर्टो मान्चिनीको नेतृत्वमा इटाली युरोपको उत्कृष्ट टोली बनेको छ। मान्चिनीको प्रशिक्षणमा टोलीले लगातार ३४ खेल अपराजित रहने राष्ट्रिय कीर्तिमान पनि बनाएको छ। उनले आफ्नो पहिलो प्रयासमै सन् १९६८ पछि इटालीलाई अर्को युरोपियन उपाधि दिलाए, जसमा देशका चार विश्वकप उपाधिहरू पनि थप गौरवका रूपमा रहेका छन्।
आतिशबाजी र रङ्गीन कागजी फिताहरू (टिकरटेप) बीच इटालीका कप्तान जर्जियो किलिनीले हेन्री डेलाउने ट्रफी उचाले। त्यस अवसरमा प्रशिक्षक मान्चिनी पनि आफ्ना खेलाडीहरूसँगै पुरस्कार मञ्चमा सहभागी भए।
“एक समय त यस्तो उपलब्धिको कल्पना गर्नु पनि असम्भव जस्तै लाग्थ्यो,” प्रशिक्षक रोबर्टो मान्चिनीले भने, “तर यी खेलाडीहरू साँच्चै अद्भुत छन्। उनीहरूको प्रशंसा गर्न मसँग शब्द नै छैन।”
इंग्ल्यान्डका लागि भने प्रमुख अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय प्रतियोगिताहरूको पेनाल्टी सुटआउटमा यो अर्को पीडादायी हार बन्यो। यसअघि पनि उनीहरू सन् १९९०, १९९६, १९९८, २००४, २००६ र २०१२ मा पेनाल्टीमा पराजित भएका थिए। सन् २०१८ को विश्वकपको अन्तिम १६ मा कोलम्बियालाई पेनाल्टीमा हराएर उनीहरूले त्यो हारको शृङ्खला तोडेका थिए, तर यो पीडा फेरि दोहोरियो।
इंग्ल्यान्डका कप्तान ह्यारी केनले भने, “खेलाडीहरूले आफ्नो तर्फबाट दिन सक्ने सबै दिएका छन्। हार्दा पेनाल्टीभन्दा दुःखद अनुभूति संसारमा अरू केही हुँदैन। यो प्रतियोगिता हाम्रो लागि उत्कृष्ट रह्यो। हामीले आफ्नो प्रदर्शनमा गर्व गर्नुपर्छ र शिर ठाडो राख्नुपर्छ। अहिले यो हारले धेरै दुःख दिनेछ, र केही समयसम्म त्यो पीडा रहिरहनेछ।”
५५ वर्षपछि पहिलो पटक ठूलो प्रतियोगिताको फाइनल खेलेको इंग्ल्यान्डले खेलको सुरुआत निकै उत्कृष्ट गरेको थियो। खेलको दोस्रो मिनेटमै कियरन ट्रिपियरको क्रसमा लुक शले हाफ–भली प्रहार गर्दै पोस्टमा ठोक्किएर गोल गरे। यो युरोपियन च्याम्पियनसिपको फाइनल इतिहासकै सबैभन्दा छिटो गोल थियो।
यो इंग्ल्यान्डका लागि लुक शको पहिलो अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय गोल पनि थियो। त्यस गोलपछि वेम्ब्ली रंगशालामा उपस्थित कम्तीमा ६७ हजार समर्थकहरू खुसीले झुमे। भीआईपी कक्षमा रहेका डेभिड बेकह्याम र टम क्रुजले पनि खुसी व्यक्त गर्दै एकअर्कासँग मुट्ठी ठोक्दै उत्सव मनाए। खेल सुरु हुनुअघि टिकटविहीन दर्जनौँ इंग्लिस समर्थकहरूले सुरक्षाकर्मी र प्रहरीलाई छल्दै रंगशालाभित्र प्रवेश गरेका कारण केही अव्यवस्थित दृश्यसमेत देखिएका थिए।
पूरा १२० मिनेटको खेलमा इटालीको बलियो र प्रसिद्ध रक्षापङ्क्ति साँच्चै खुला भएको त्यो एकमात्र अवसर थियो। वास्तवमा, लुक शको गोलपछि इंग्ल्यान्डले बाँकी खेलभरि बलमा निकै कम नियन्त्रण राख्न सक्यो।
खेलअघि गरिएको अनुमानअनुसार इटालीका मिडफिल्डरहरूले बलमाथि पूर्ण नियन्त्रण जमाए। त्यसको सामना गर्न इंग्ल्यान्डले आफ्ना नौ वा कहिलेकाहीँ सबै १० बाहिरी खेलाडीलाई पछाडि फर्काएर रक्षात्मक शैली अपनायो। यो दृश्य सन् २०१८ को विश्वकपको सेमिफाइनलसँग मिल्दोजुल्दो थियो, जहाँ इंग्ल्यान्डले क्रोएसियाविरुद्ध सुरुमै गोल गरे पनि त्यसपछि अधिकांश समय विपक्षीको मिडफिल्डको पछि दौडिँदै बितायो र अन्ततः अतिरिक्त समयमा पराजित भयो।
इटालीको बराबरी गोल पूर्ण रूपमा योग्य थियो, यद्यपि गोल गर्ने खेलाडी लियोनार्डो बोनुच्ची हुने अपेक्षा धेरैले गरेका थिएनन्। दायाँतर्फबाट आएको कर्नरलाई मार्को भेरात्तीले हेडमार्फत अगाडि बढाए। उनको झुकेर गरेको हेडरलाई गोलरक्षक जोर्डन पिकफोर्डले पोस्टतर्फ धकेले पनि रिबाउन्ड भएको बललाई बोनुच्चीले नजिकैबाट जाली चुमाए।
इंग्ल्यान्डले खेललाई अतिरिक्त समयसम्म त पुर्याउन सफल भयो, जसरी पछिल्ला छवटा युरोपियन च्याम्पियनसिपका फाइनलमध्ये तीनवटा अतिरिक्त समयमा पुगेका थिए। खेलको अन्तिम चरणमा इंग्ल्यान्डको प्रदर्शन केही राम्रो देखिए पनि, पेनाल्टी सुटआउटमा भने उनीहरू फेरि असफल भए।
मार्कस रासफोर्डले पेनाल्टी प्रहार गर्दा दौडिने क्रममा केही क्षण रोकिए र उनको प्रहार पोस्टमा लाग्यो। त्यसपछि जेडन सान्चोको प्रहारलाई पनि गोलरक्षक जियानलुइजी डोनारुम्माले बायाँतर्फ डाइभ गर्दै बचाए। त्यसपछि इटालीका लागि जोर्गिन्होसँग खेल जिताउने अवसर आयो।
अचम्मको कुरा, सेमिफाइनलमा स्पेनविरुद्ध निर्णायक पेनाल्टी गोल गरेका जोर्गिन्हो यसपटक भने गोल गर्न असफल भए। उनको प्रहारलाई इंग्ल्यान्डका गोलरक्षक जोर्डन पिकफोर्डले छोएर पोस्टतर्फ फर्काइदिए।
तर अन्ततः निर्णायक बचाउ फेरि डोनारुम्माले नै गरे। केही मिनेटभित्रै उनलाई प्रतियोगिताको उत्कृष्ट खेलाडी (Player of the Tournament) घोषित गरियो। यो सम्मान प्राप्त गर्ने उनी युरोपियन च्याम्पियनसिप इतिहासका पहिलो गोलरक्षक बने।
यसरी, ट्रफी “घर” (इंग्ल्यान्ड) फर्किनुको सट्टा रोमतर्फ लाग्यो।
लियोनार्डो बोनुच्चीले भने, “बुधबार रातिदेखि हामीले दिनरात एउटै कुरा सुन्दै आएका थियौँ— ट्रफी लन्डनमा नै रहनेछ, घर फर्किनेछ भन्ने। उनीहरूको लागि मलाई दुःख लागेको छ, तर अब यो कप सुन्दर यात्रामा रोम जाँदैछ, जहाँ संसारभरका इटालियनहरूले यसको सफलताको स्वाद लिन पाउनेछन्।”
A. Find out the origin and meaning of the following words.
Word Origin Meaning
penalty Latin (poena) A punishment; in sports, a punishment for breaking a rule.
major Latin (major) Important; greater in size or importance.
stadium Greek (stadion) via Latin A large sports ground where games are played.
trophy Greek (tropaion) A prize awarded to the winner of a competition.
defender Latin (defendere) A player whose main job is to stop the opposing team from scoring.
anthem Greek (antiphona) An official or patriotic song of a country or team.
dejection Latin (deicere) A feeling of sadness or disappointment.
jubilant Latin (jubilare) Feeling or expressing great happiness and celebration.
record Latin (recordari) The best performance or an official account of achievements.
suave Latin (suavis) Polite, charming, and confident.
podium Greek (podion) A raised platform for winners or speakers.
tournament Old French (torneiement) A series of sports competitions to decide the champion.
reminiscent Latin (reminisci) Making someone remember something from the past.
incredible Latin (incredibilis) Very amazing or difficult to believe.
savor Latin (sapor) To enjoy or appreciate something fully.
B. Define the following cricket terms.
Wicket: Three stumps with two bails; also the dismissal of a batter.
Stump: One of the three vertical wooden sticks in a wicket.
Crease: The marked line on the cricket pitch.
Boundary: The edge of the playing field; reaching it scores four or six runs.
Sixer: A shot that crosses the boundary without touching the ground, scoring six runs.
Googly: A deceptive spin delivery by a leg-spinner.
Leg-bye: Runs scored after the ball hits the batter's body (not the bat).
Wicket maiden: An over in which no runs are scored and a wicket is taken.
Pitch: The central strip where the bowler bowls and the batter bats.
Power-play: A period with fielding restrictions.
No-ball: An illegal delivery by the bowler.
Yorker: A delivery that lands at or near the batter's feet.
C. Divide the words according to pronunciation.
/aɪ/ fine, shine, why, height, bright, might, five, sight, white, by
/eɪ/ rein, rail, sleigh, snail, break, fake, freight, eight, game, claim, gait, hail, frame
Comprehension
A. State whether the following sentences are True (T), False (F) or Not Given (NG).
a. England was the champion of the 1996 World Cup Football. — True
b. Italy bagged its first Euro Cup trophy in Euro Cup 2020. — True
c. The English team has won more trophies in international football than Italy. — False
d. According to the captain of the English team, the pain of losing a match has lasting effects. — Not Given
e. The Italian team was playing on their home ground. — False
f. The goalkeeper of the Italian team had performed the best among all the players in the match. — True
B. Answer the following questions.
a. Why does the reporter say that England is waiting to heal its half-century-long pain?
Answer: Because England had not won a major international football title since the 1966 FIFA World Cup, making fans wait for more than 50 years.
b. How did the Italian players react as soon as they became the champions?
Answer: They celebrated with great joy, rushed towards goalkeeper Gianluigi Donnarumma, hugged him, and later celebrated in front of the Italian supporters.
c. Why did Saka and Sancho cry?
Answer: They cried because they missed their penalties in the shootout, which contributed to England's defeat.
d. Penalty shoot-outs have long been a bitter experience for the English team. Why?
Answer: Because England has suffered several defeats in penalty shoot-outs in major tournaments, including in 1990, 1996, 1998, 2004, 2006, 2012, and again in the Euro 2020 final.
e. State the contribution of Roberto Mancini to Italian football.
Answer: Roberto Mancini rebuilt the Italian team after its failure to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, guided them to a national record of 34 unbeaten matches, and led Italy to win the Euro 2020 championship.
f. How does the Euro Cup 2020 final remind the audience of the 2018 World Cup semifinal?
Answer: In both matches, England scored an early goal but gradually lost control of the game, allowed the opponents to dominate possession, and eventually lost in extra time or through penalties.
Critical Thinking
a. "Every match is a new opportunity. Put its failure behind and start over again." Does this apply to the Italian football team? Explain.
Answer: Yes, this statement perfectly applies to the Italian football team. Italy failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, which was one of the biggest disappointments in its football history. Instead of giving up, the team worked hard under coach Roberto Mancini. They improved their performance, remained unbeaten for 34 matches, and won the UEFA Euro 2020 championship. Their success shows that failures should be treated as lessons and that determination, teamwork, and hard work can lead to great achievements.
b. Does playing on the home ground help a team win, or can it create pressure? What do you think?
Answer: Playing on the home ground has both advantages and disadvantages. Home supporters encourage the players and create a positive atmosphere, which can increase the team's confidence and motivation. However, playing in front of thousands of home fans also brings pressure because everyone expects the team to win. If players cannot handle that pressure, they may become nervous and make mistakes. Therefore, while home support is an advantage, success ultimately depends on the players' performance, teamwork, preparation, and mental strength.
Writing
A. Punctuate the following passage.
A lot of people try to get away from home for a few days each year for a holiday. There are lots of things to choose from, and where you go depends on how much money you have got to spend. Ideas for holidays include relaxing on a beach, exploring cities, and skiing. One man wanted to go to Australia but thought he'd never have enough money to get there. He will go to his brother's caravan at the seaside instead. A young woman wanted to go clubbing in Ibiza as she'd heard it's a lot of fun.
B. Write a news story based on the given information.
Argentina Beat Brazil to Win Copa America
By Reuters
RIO DE JANEIRO, July 10: Argentina won the Copa America title by defeating Brazil 1–0 in the final. It was Argentina's first major international title in 28 years and Lionel Messi's first senior international trophy with the national team.
Ángel Di María scored the only goal of the match to give Argentina a historic victory. With this win, Argentina claimed its 15th Copa America title, equaling Brazil's record.
Brazil played more aggressively in the second half and created several scoring opportunities, but Argentina's outstanding defense successfully protected the lead until the final whistle. The victory marked a memorable achievement for Argentina and their captain, Lionel Messi.
C. Essay
Topic: Hosting an International Sports Event: More Benefits or More Problems?
A complete answer should be about 500 words. You can include these ideas:
Hosting international events improves a country's global image.
It boosts tourism and creates employment opportunities.
It leads to better roads, stadiums, airports, and other infrastructure.
It encourages sports and inspires young athletes.
However, hosting such events requires huge financial investment.
There may be cost overruns, debt, traffic congestion, security concerns, and environmental impacts.
Overall, if planned and managed properly, the long-term benefits can outweigh the challenges
Grammar
B. Complete the sentences with much, many, few or little.
a. He is an introvert. He has got very few friends.
b. I am busy preparing for my examinations. I have very little time to give to you.
c. The entire winter season was dry this year. We had little rain.
d. Our town has almost been modernized. There are few old buildings left.
e. You can come today. I haven’t got much to do.
f. The party was crowded. There were many people.
g. How many photographs did you take while you were in Switzerland?
h. There was little traffic, so I came on time.
i. Can I borrow a few books from you?
j. Mohan can’t be a good teacher. He has little patience.
C. Put each or every in the blanks.
a. The party split into three factions, each faction headed by a former prime minister.
b. Leap years occur every four years.
c. Every parent worries about their children.
d. We had a great time in Singapore. We enjoyed every minute of our time.
e. I could catch the main idea of his speech, but I didn’t understand every of his words.
f. In Nepal, every motorcycle rider should wear a helmet.
g. You must read each of these books for the exam.
D. Rewrite using all of, most of, none of, both of, or some of.
a. Your garden is superb. All of the flowers are beautiful.
b. Do you know Bharat and Kamal? Of course, I do. Both of them are my friends.
c. I bought a box of apples thinking it would be cheaper, but I was mistaken. Some of them were rotten.
d. When I was in the town, I asked some people for directions, but none of them were able to help me.
e. We all were soaked in the rain because none of us had carried an umbrella.
f. My father is healthy in his seventies, but he feels isolated because most of his friends are dead now.
g. All of the tourists are not Chinese. Some of them are Korean too.
E. Choose the correct word.
a. Give me the money I owe you.
b. I want a boat which would take me to the island.
c. Could you pour me some water, please?
d. Only a few employees know how important the project was.
e. He was looking for an umbrella.
f. A large amount of water was evaporated due to excessive heat.
Unit 4: Technology
Hyperloop
A hyperloop is an ultra-high-speed ground transportation system for passengers and cargo. It allows people and freight to travel at speeds of up to 760 mph (1,220 km/h) in floating pods that move through giant low-pressure tubes built either above or below the ground.
Hyperloop is a new form of transportation that is currently being researched and developed by several companies. Although the idea has existed for many years, the technology is still under development. Early commercial services were expected around 2020, but further testing and improvements have delayed large-scale implementation.
How Is Hyperloop Different from Traditional Rail?
There are two major differences between a hyperloop and conventional trains.
First, passenger pods travel inside sealed tubes from which most of the air has been removed. This greatly reduces air resistance (friction), allowing the pods to travel at extremely high speeds.
Second, instead of using wheels, the pods float above the track using air skis (similar to an air hockey table) or magnetic levitation (maglev) technology. This further reduces friction and increases efficiency.
Advantages of Hyperloop
A hyperloop offers several advantages. It is faster than trains and cars, cheaper than building traditional high-speed rail, less expensive and less polluting than air travel, helps reduce traffic congestion, improves travel between cities, and supports economic growth through faster transportation.
History of Hyperloop
The concept of transporting people through low-pressure or vacuum tubes is not new.
In 1864, the Crystal Palace Pneumatic Railway in London used air pressure to move railway wagons. Since the late nineteenth century, pneumatic tube systems have been used in banks, hospitals, and supermarkets to transport money and small packages.
In the early twentieth century, Robert Goddard developed the vactrain concept, which inspired many later ideas.
The modern hyperloop gained worldwide attention in August 2013 when entrepreneur Elon Musk published the Hyperloop Alpha paper, explaining how the system could work and what it might cost.
How Does a Hyperloop Tube Work?
Hyperloop pods travel through tubes located either above or below the ground.
Most of the air is removed from the tubes using powerful pumps, creating a low-pressure environment. Since air resistance is one of the greatest causes of energy loss during high-speed travel, reducing it allows the pods to move almost as fast as airplanes while remaining on the ground.
According to Elon Musk's design, the air pressure inside the tube would be about 100 pascals, approximately one-sixth of the atmospheric pressure on Mars. This reduces air resistance by about 1,000 times compared with sea-level conditions.
How Do Hyperloop Capsules Work?
Hyperloop capsules float above the track using air-bearing skis or magnetic levitation.
The pods are initially accelerated by a linear electric motor and then continue moving through the near-vacuum tube with occasional boosts every 70 miles.
Each capsule is designed to carry about 28 passengers, luggage, and, in some versions, cargo or vehicles. Pods could depart every two minutes or every thirty seconds during peak demand.
How Is Hyperloop Powered?
Hyperloop uses linear electric motors to accelerate the pods.
According to Musk's proposal, solar panels installed on top of the tubes would generate enough electricity to power the entire system, potentially producing more energy than the hyperloop consumes.
What Does Travelling in a Hyperloop Feel Like?
Some critics believe that rapid acceleration and turns might cause discomfort or nausea.
However, developers claim that travelling in a hyperloop would feel similar to riding in an elevator or flying in a commercial airplane. Acceleration and deceleration would be gradual, reducing discomfort and turbulence.
Since the pods travel inside enclosed tubes without windows, passengers would enjoy digital displays showing scenic landscapes and personal entertainment systems.
Will Hyperloop Be Successful?
The future of hyperloop remains uncertain.
The technology is still in the experimental stage. Building hundreds of kilometres of vacuum tubes is expensive, maintaining low pressure is technically challenging, and large-scale passenger capacity remains uncertain. Business models and ticket pricing also need further development.
Despite these challenges, hyperloop has the potential to provide faster travel, reduce traffic congestion, lower pollution, and promote economic development.
Several companies continue to develop the technology, but widespread commercial use will depend on successful testing, affordability, safety, and public acceptance.
एकाइ ४ : प्रविधि (Technology)
हाइपरलुप (Hyperloop)
हाइपरलुप यात्रु र सामान (कार्गो) ढुवानीका लागि प्रयोग हुने अति उच्च गतिको (Ultra-high-speed) स्थल यातायात प्रणाली हो। यसमा मानिस र सामानलाई जमिनमाथि वा जमिनमुनि निर्माण गरिएका विशाल कम चाप (Low-pressure) भएका ट्युबभित्र तैरिने क्याप्सुल (Pods) मार्फत ७६० माइल प्रतिघण्टा (१,२२० किमी/घण्टा) सम्मको गतिमा यात्रा गराइन्छ।
हाइपरलुप नयाँ प्रकारको यातायात प्रणाली हो, जसको हाल विभिन्न कम्पनीहरूले अनुसन्धान र विकास गरिरहेका छन्। यसको अवधारणा धेरै वर्षदेखि भए पनि यसको प्रविधि अझै विकासकै चरणमा छ। प्रारम्भिक व्यावसायिक सेवा सन् २०२० तिर सुरु हुने अपेक्षा गरिएको थियो, तर थप परीक्षण र सुधार आवश्यक परेकाले यसको व्यापक प्रयोग अझै हुन सकेको छैन।
हाइपरलुप परम्परागत रेलभन्दा कसरी फरक छ?
हाइपरलुप र परम्परागत रेलबीच मुख्यतः दुईवटा फरक छन्।
पहिलो, यात्रु बोक्ने क्याप्सुलहरू अधिकांश हावा निकालिएको बन्द ट्युबभित्र यात्रा गर्छन्। यसले हावाको प्रतिरोध (घर्षण) निकै कम गर्छ, जसका कारण क्याप्सुल अत्यन्त उच्च गतिमा चल्न सक्छ।
दोस्रो, हाइपरलुपमा पाङ्ग्राको सट्टा एयर स्की (Air Skis) वा चुम्बकीय उत्थापन (Magnetic Levitation/Maglev) प्रविधि प्रयोग गरिन्छ। यसले घर्षणलाई अझ कम गरी यात्रालाई बढी प्रभावकारी बनाउँछ।
हाइपरलुपका फाइदाहरू
हाइपरलुपका धेरै फाइदाहरू छन्।
रेल र कारभन्दा धेरै छिटो हुन्छ।
परम्परागत उच्चगतिको रेल निर्माणभन्दा कम खर्चिलो हुन्छ।
हवाई यात्राभन्दा सस्तो र कम प्रदूषणकारी हुन्छ।
सडकको ट्राफिक जाम घटाउन मद्दत गर्छ।
सहरहरूबीचको यात्रा छिटो र सहज बनाउँछ।
द्रुत यातायातका कारण आर्थिक विकासमा सहयोग पुर्याउँछ।
हाइपरलुपको इतिहास
कम चाप वा निर्वात (Vacuum) ट्युबमार्फत मानिसलाई यात्रा गराउने अवधारणा नयाँ होइन।
सन् १८६४ मा लन्डनको क्रिस्टल प्यालेस न्यूम्याटिक रेल्वे (Crystal Palace Pneumatic Railway) ले हावाको चाप प्रयोग गरी रेलका डिब्बा चलाएको थियो।
उन्नाइसौँ शताब्दीको अन्त्यदेखि बैंक, अस्पताल तथा सुपरमार्केटहरूमा पैसा र साना सामान ओसार्न न्यूम्याटिक ट्युब प्रणाली प्रयोग हुँदै आएको छ।
बीसौँ शताब्दीको प्रारम्भमा रोबर्ट गोडार्ड (Robert Goddard) ले भ्याक्ट्रेन (Vactrain) को अवधारणा प्रस्तुत गरेका थिए, जसले पछि हाइपरलुपजस्ता विचारहरूलाई प्रेरणा दियो।
आधुनिक हाइपरलुपले विश्वव्यापी चर्चा सन् २०१३ अगस्ट मा पायो, जब उद्यमी एलन मस्क (Elon Musk) ले Hyperloop Alpha नामक अनुसन्धानपत्र प्रकाशित गर्दै यसको कार्यप्रणाली र लागतबारे जानकारी दिएका थिए।
हाइपरलुपको ट्युब कसरी काम गर्छ?
हाइपरलुपका क्याप्सुलहरू जमिनमाथि वा जमिनमुनि बनाइएका ट्युबभित्र यात्रा गर्छन्।
शक्तिशाली पम्पको सहायताले ट्युबभित्रको अधिकांश हावा निकालिन्छ, जसले कम चापको वातावरण सिर्जना गर्छ।
हावाको प्रतिरोध उच्च गतिमा ऊर्जा नष्ट हुने प्रमुख कारण भएकाले यसलाई कम गर्दा क्याप्सुलहरू विमानसरह गतिमा जमिनमै यात्रा गर्न सक्छन्।
एलन मस्कको डिजाइनअनुसार ट्युबभित्रको हावाको चाप करिब १०० पास्कल हुनेछ, जुन मंगल ग्रहको वायुमण्डलीय चापको करिब एक-छैटौँ भाग बराबर हो। यसले समुद्री सतहको तुलनामा हावाको प्रतिरोध करिब १,००० गुणा कम गर्छ।
हाइपरलुपका क्याप्सुलहरू कसरी काम गर्छन्?
हाइपरलुपका क्याप्सुलहरू एयर-बेयरिङ स्की वा चुम्बकीय उत्थापन (Maglev) प्रविधिबाट ट्र्याकभन्दा केही माथि तैरिन्छन्।
सुरुमा रेखीय विद्युतीय मोटर (Linear Electric Motor) द्वारा तीव्र गति दिइन्छ। त्यसपछि क्याप्सुलहरू निर्वातजस्तै ट्युबभित्र यात्रा गर्छन् र करिब ७० माइलको अन्तरालमा आवश्यक परे थप गति दिइन्छ।
प्रत्येक क्याप्सुलमा करिब २८ जना यात्रु, उनीहरूको सामान तथा केही मोडेलमा मालसामान वा सवारीसाधन पनि बोक्न सकिन्छ।
सामान्य अवस्थामा प्रत्येक २ मिनेटमा एउटा क्याप्सुल छुट्न सक्छ भने अत्यधिक भीड भएको समयमा ३० सेकेन्डको अन्तरालमा पनि सञ्चालन गर्न सकिन्छ।
हाइपरलुपलाई ऊर्जा कसरी प्राप्त हुन्छ?
हाइपरलुपले क्याप्सुललाई गति दिन रेखीय विद्युतीय मोटर प्रयोग गर्छ।
एलन मस्कको प्रस्तावअनुसार ट्युबको माथि राखिएका सौर्य प्यानलहरू ले सम्पूर्ण प्रणाली सञ्चालन गर्न आवश्यक बिजुली उत्पादन गर्नेछन्। सम्भवतः यसले प्रयोगभन्दा बढी ऊर्जा उत्पादन गर्न सक्नेछ।
हाइपरलुपमा यात्रा गर्दा कस्तो अनुभव हुन्छ?
केही आलोचकहरूको विचारमा तीव्र गति, मोड तथा द्रुत त्वरणका कारण यात्रुलाई असहजता वा वाकवाकी हुन सक्छ।
तर विकासकर्ताहरूका अनुसार हाइपरलुपमा यात्रा गर्नु लिफ्टमा यात्रा गर्नु वा व्यावसायिक विमानमा उड्नुजस्तै सहज अनुभव हुनेछ। गति बढ्ने र घट्ने प्रक्रिया बिस्तारै हुने भएकाले असहजता कम हुनेछ।
ट्युब पूर्ण रूपमा बन्द हुने भएकाले झ्याल हुँदैन। त्यसैले यात्रुहरूका लागि डिजिटल स्क्रिनमा सुन्दर दृश्य तथा मनोरञ्जनका सामग्री देखाइने व्यवस्था हुनेछ।
हाइपरलुप सफल हुनेछ त?
हाइपरलुपको भविष्य अझै निश्चित छैन।
यो प्रविधि अझै परीक्षणकै चरणमा छ। सयौँ किलोमिटर लामो निर्वात ट्युब निर्माण गर्नु निकै महँगो छ। कम चाप कायम राख्नु प्राविधिक रूपमा चुनौतीपूर्ण छ, साथै धेरै यात्रु बोक्ने क्षमताबारे पनि अझै निश्चितता छैन। व्यापारिक मोडेल तथा टिकट मूल्य निर्धारणसमेत विकास गर्न बाँकी छ।
यी चुनौतीहरू हुँदाहुँदै पनि हाइपरलुपले छिटो यात्रा, ट्राफिक जाम न्यूनीकरण, प्रदूषण कम गर्ने तथा आर्थिक विकासमा योगदान दिने ठूलो सम्भावना बोकेको छ।
धेरै कम्पनीहरूले यसको विकासलाई निरन्तर अघि बढाइरहेका छन्। तर यसको व्यापक व्यावसायिक प्रयोग सफल परीक्षण, किफायती लागत, सुरक्षा तथा जनस्वीकृतिमा निर्भर रहनेछ।
Working with Words
A. Choose the correct words from the box to complete the following sentences.
Words: freight, levitation, gridlock, pneumatic, predecessor, envisioned, equivalent, subsonic, turbulence, deceleration
a. I think that covering up the facts is equivalent to lying really.
b. If there is not a substantial move to public transport, we will have gridlock and the whole regeneration will not work.
c. Each new leader would blame his predecessor for all the evils of the past.
d. We have, in fact, envisioned a better world and have made it happen.
e. The main linear actuators of the pneumatic systems are cylinders.
f. The barrel was short and the bullet emerged at subsonic speed.
g. The city is said to receive two-fifths of the total freight delivered in the country.
h. It would still take four hours to get down, in a spiral of deceleration.
i. Apparently, the magician will be doing some levitation on the stage tomorrow.
j. We might be experiencing some turbulence on this flight due to an approaching electrical storm.
B. Add three more words that are formed with the following prefixes.
a. hyper- : hyperloop, hypermarket, hyperlink, hyperactive
b. ultra- : ultrahigh, ultraviolet, ultrasound, ultramodern
c. up- : uphill, upgrade, upload, update
d. over- : overcoming, overcome, overtake, overestimate
e. multi- : multibillion, multimedia, multinational, multicultural
Comprehension
a. What is a hyperloop? How does it work?
A hyperloop is an ultra-high-speed transportation system for passengers and cargo. It works by moving floating pods through low-pressure tubes at very high speeds using magnetic levitation or air skis.
b. How is hyperloop more beneficial than the traditional trains?
Hyperloop is faster, cheaper to build, more energy-efficient, less polluting, and reduces traffic congestion compared to traditional trains.
c. Does hyperloop have a successful history? How?
No. Hyperloop is still in the experimental stage. Although the idea has existed for many years, it has not yet been widely used commercially.
d. Write the contributions of Robert Goddard and Elon Musk for the development of hyperloop.
Robert Goddard developed the early concept of the vacuum train (vactrain). Elon Musk revived the idea by publishing the Hyperloop Alpha paper in 2013 and proposed a practical design for the system.
e. What relation does speed have with air resistance? Explain.
As speed increases, air resistance also increases. Hyperloop reduces air resistance by removing most of the air from the tubes, allowing the pods to travel much faster with less energy.
f. What are hyperloop capsules compared with? How are they similar?
Hyperloop capsules are compared with the puck used in an air hockey game. Both float above a surface on a cushion of air, reducing friction.
g. How do the passengers feel while travelling via hyperloop? What will be done to make it luxurious?
Passengers are expected to feel as comfortable as they do while travelling in an elevator or an airplane. To make the journey luxurious, the pods will have digital landscape displays and personal entertainment systems.
h. Why does the writer doubt about the success of hyperloop? What does the success depend on?
The writer doubts its success because the technology is still under development and there are engineering, financial, and business challenges. Its success depends on safety, affordability, public acceptance, and successful commercial operation.
Critical Thinking
a. Is the hyperloop the future of transportation or just a dream? What do you think? Justify your opinion with suitable reasons.
I believe that the hyperloop has the potential to become the future of transportation. It is faster, cleaner, and more energy-efficient than existing transport systems. It can reduce traffic congestion and save travel time. However, it still requires further technological development, investment, and safety testing before becoming widely available.
b. The number of private vehicles is increasing day by day in Nepal beyond the capacity of our infrastructure. What do you think should be done to curb the ever-growing number of private vehicles? Discuss.
The government should improve public transportation by providing safe, comfortable, and reliable buses and trains. Better road planning, strict vehicle registration policies, higher parking fees, and promotion of cycling and walking can also help reduce the number of private vehicles. Public awareness about environmental protection is equally important.
Writing
A. Read the press release issued by Bahamasair about their irregular operations.
(Activity-based question)
B. Press Release
Press Release
Nepal Airlines Corporation
Date: __________
Flight Cancellation Notice
Nepal Airlines regrets to inform all valued passengers that all scheduled flights to the mountain regions have been cancelled today due to adverse weather conditions. Poor visibility, heavy rainfall, and strong winds have made flying unsafe.
The safety of our passengers and crew is our highest priority. Therefore, this decision has been made following the recommendations of aviation authorities.
Passengers are requested to contact the nearest Nepal Airlines office for rescheduling or refund procedures. We sincerely apologize for the inconvenience caused and appreciate your patience and understanding.
For further information, please visit our official website or contact our customer service center.
General Manager
Nepal Airlines Corporation
Grammar
B. Rewrite the following sentences.
a. The invitation is for one person. I don’t mind whether you or she comes to the party.
b. Neither the MPs nor the Prime Minister has felt regret for the party split.
c. I don’t care whether he or she wins the lottery.
d. Either the Kantipur or the Republica is used for the advertisement.
e. She speaks in a strange accent. Neither I nor my sister understands her.
f. I forgot whether the singers or the actress was given the Film Fair Award last year.
g. Neither the tracksuit nor the pajamas fit me perfectly.
h. Neither the gas fire nor the electric heaters are suitable for room heating.
C. Corrected Passage
Within the state of Arizona, Rob, along with his family, moves frequently from city to city. After his arrival, one of his first tasks is to find an apartment close to work as he does not have a car. Usually, there are many different places to choose from, and he considers cost, location, and luxury. If one apartment has a washing machine and dryer and costs four hundred dollars a month, he prefers to rent it over another apartment which has significantly less rent located two blocks from a Laundromat.
Rob's family never wants to live in an apartment on the thirteenth floor since all of them fear heights. He also tries to choose an apartment with landlords recommended by former tenants. Everybody knows that it is important to find a responsible landlord. Rob and his wife love to cook together when both are free, so he needs a spacious, well-equipped kitchen. Rob also looks for a place with an air conditioner because there are so many scorching days and nights in Arizona. Whenever Rob finds a new apartment, all of his concerns disappear. He feels relieved and calls his mother. Someone understands!